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Our Life | Наше життя June | Червень 2021 27 more years of college, on the other hand, experienced significant increases during this period: the percent - age of women with four years of college increased by 7.9% from 2000 to 2018, and the percentage with five or more years of college increased by 9.5%. Adding the percentages of these two categories, the percent - age of Ukrainian women with at least four years of college increased by 17.4% in those 18 years. What caused this extraordinary improvement in the level of education among Ukrainian women? Figure 3 compares the level of education of recent female immigrants from Ukraine (the so-called Fourth Wave, or Четверта Хвиля – people born in Ukraine who ar - rived in the U.S. after 1987) with the rest of Ukrainian women in the U.S., whom we call non-Fourth Wave. Fourth Wave female immigrants have a higher level of education than non-Fourth Wave females, with higher percentages than non-Fourth Wave females in all three college categories. Among all women aged 25 years or more and with at least one year of col - lege, 35% are Fourth Wave immigrants. Thus, it is safe to say that the extraordinary increase in the level of education among Ukrainian women in the U.S. in the years 2000–2018 is due largely to the influx of highly educated women from Ukraine. Labor Force Status Labor Force Status Labor force participation is significantly higher for Ukrainian men than women – 70% versus 59%. This male-female difference is similar to that for the total U.S. population. Table 1 presents some indicators on the “class of workers” of Ukrainians in the U.S. Three classes of workers are identified by the U.S. Bureau of the Census: self-employed workers, wage and salary workers, and government employees. A higher per - centage of men are self-employed than women – 17% versus 10%. On the other hand, women have higher percentages in the wage and salary and government employee categories. Comparing Fourth Wave and non-Fourth Wave fe - males, a higher percentage of Fourth Wave women are in the wage and salary category, while non-Fourth Wave women have a significant advantage in the gov - ernment employee category. Clearly, it is more diffi - cult for new immigrants to get a government job. A surprising finding is the equal percentage – 10% – of Fourth Wave and non-Fourth Wave women in the self-employed category. Many Fourth Wave im - migrants have resided in the U.S. only a few years, while 80% of the non-Fourth Wave are U.S.-born. The expectation is that non-Fourth Wave females would have more opportunities to start their own businesses. That the same percentage of each group is self-employed indicates a strong sense of entre - preneurship among recent female immigrants from Ukraine. Managerial and Professional Occupations Managerial and Professional Occupations Our analysis of occupations is limited to two groups of high-level occupations: (a) executive, managerial, and administrative occupations; (b) scientists. Some data are also presented for a few specific occupa - tions. Table 2 presents the number of Ukrainian men and women in 11 high-level executive, manageri - al, and administrative occupations. Overall, 44% of all Ukrainians with occupations in this category are women. There are more women than men in seven of the 11 categories listed in Table 2. Women hold more than 75% of management positions in human resources, medicine and health, and service organi - zations. The low proportion of women in categories like property management and funeral directors is likely due to gender stereotypes. The low proportion of women among chief executives in public adminis - Figure 3. Level of education of females* by Fourth Wave status: U.S., 2018 (percentages) 3.1 4.2 24.3 18.8 19.7 21.8 28.5 30.1 24.4 25.1 35 0 < H.S. H.S. some college 4 yr. college 5+ yr. college * 25 years or older non-4th 4th wave Self- employed Wage and salary Government employees Females 10 75 15 Males 17 71 12 Females: non-4th wave 10 73 17 4th wave 10 79 11 Table 1. Class of worker indicators of Ukrainians by sex and Fourth Wave status: U.S., 2018 (percentages)
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